Historical Perspective
To understand the current U.S. college and university system, it helps to look back at the history of higher education across time. We look first (and briefly) at Europe, where higher education emerged and then to the United States system. This interactive map explores major "eras" in history and reveals pivotal moments, policies and practices that forever changed the face of higher education.
Middle Ages - Enlightenment (1100-1780's)
Higher education was a privilege of the very wealthy, and all students took the same classes. During the reformation, universities became propaganda factories, as different sects chartered them to be used as pawns in the prolonged church vs. church and church vs. monarchy battles. During the enlightenment, university education fell out of fashion in the UK, with the traditional curriculum seen as irrelevant in an increasingly mechanized world.
Student Class
Most students are extremely affluent. A select few students come from the lower classes. None are members of the extremely poor class who makes up most of society.
What do you get with a BA?
In Europe the Bachelors degree is seen as the first step towards a Masters degree. Masters degrees are only granted in Europe.
Model of University
Residential. The University was a city unto itself, a permanent residence for secular clergy who lived a communal life but were not monastic.
Who were Professors?
Generalists: clerics and tutors. Students who have completed their BA spent 4 years teaching all subjects to one group of students, with a focus on moral development.
Types of Transportation
Carts, pack-mules, horses and oxen. Sailing ships moved the largest loads the longest distances.
Significant Thinkers/Writers
Education was heavily influenced by Augustine who believed that 1) Truth is absolute and God-given 2) Education should contain both secular and religious teaching.
Trends
- Higher Education begins and expands quickly, until The Enlightenment,when classical education briefly falls out of style.
- Two models of education: Arts Education (Paris) and Legal Education (Bologna).
- Education modeled on apprenticeship.
- Towards the end of the twelfth century a few of the greatest schools claimed to be of more than merely local importance: called studia generalia, or places to which scholars resorted from all parts of Europe.
Industrial Revolution (1789-1900's)
After suffering mightily during the enlightenment, European universities strove to reinvent themselves; this reshaping was based in part on the boom of Mechanic's Schools, which taught relevant vocational skills as well as science and technology. Moreover, these schools appealed to working-class and middle-class students, and taught their courses in English. Forced to adapt or die, European universities change their model of education.
Student Class
Still primarily affluent class of students but an increasing number of working-class people as colleges start to train for trades.
What do you get with a BA?
The Bachelors degree is viewed as irrelevant to a newly technological society. There is a decreased emphasis on degree attainment as relevant to success.
Model of University
The research institution is born, fundamentally changing degree types and funding sources.
Who were Professors?
Specialists (single-subject professors) and researchers. Only Cambridge and Oxford hold on to the tutors.
Types of Transportation
In Britain, roads made of longer-lasting surfaces and canals connected all parts of the nation. The first steam-powered locomotive is developed.
Significant Thinkers/Writers
Isaac Newton and compatriots help change popular belief that truth was absolute and dictated by God. Pursuit of knowledge and science seen as ways to better understand God, not betray church teachings.
Trends
- Universities struggle to catch up and be relevant as Mechanics' schools take the lead in teaching science and technology.
Colonial And Early American (1600-1800)
Though there were only two universities in the nascent colonies (Harvard and William and Mary), a high value was placed on education at all levels. The Puritans valued universal literacy which buoyed university attendance. In turning their back England, the rebelling colonists made decisions that continue to shape American education today. The first women attended university, schools were encouraged to spring up without official charters.
Student Class
College is a luxury for the few, but after the American revolution poorer people were able to attend in increasing numbers.
What do you get with a BA?
American post Bachelors degree institutions are still in their infancy. Advanced study is still occurring primarily in Europe. Or middle-class professions
Model of University
Universities are small, closely guarded. Harvard is modeled after Oxford and Cambridge, but other schools do not follow in that mold.
Who were Professors?
Moving from the model of the English tutor to a specialized teaching scholar; many professors are still clergy members
Types of Transportation
Existing Native American trails formed the first roads. Horses, sleds, and wagons used as transport. First turnpike in Virginia in 1785. First canal completed was the Santee Canal in 1800.
Significant Thinkers/Writers
Christian von Wolff, Faculty Psychology (1734). The mind is best developed through "mental discipline:" drill and repetition of basic skills.
Trends
- Puritan ideals emphasize universal literacy and higher education, meaning that US Colleges multiply and diversify.
- 1647 - Massachusetts Law: every town of at least 50 families hire a schoolmaster who would teach the town's children to read and write.
American Education (1800-1917)
The number of American colleges expanded quickly in this era and many went out of business within a few years, or decades, of existence. Americans increasingly saw classical education as irrelevant, and the colleges that survived were those willing to adapt. Many universities offered high school classes as well, as a cost saving measure.
Student Class
Economic diversity increases significantly after the civil war with more students able to go to college and the number of schools increasing rapidly.
What do you get with a BA?
Higher education is professionalized with degrees focusing on job types rather than just scholarly pursuits. A degree begins to open professional doors.
Model of University
Universities are bigger and cover more subjects, focusing on “reality” and “practicality” rather than scholarship.
Who were Professors?
Specialists. American Association of University Professors forms and shapes an early formal system of tenure.
Types of Transportation
Erie canal completed in 1825. First commercially successful steamboat 1807. Railroads begin to open in the 1830's. 8,000 registered automobiles in the USA by 1900.
Significant Thinkers/Writers
Christian von Wolff, Faculty Psychology (1734). The mind is best developed through "mental discipline" drills and repetition of basic skills.
Trends
- American universities shift to practical education; classical education is seen as increasingly irrelevant.
- Due to an over-abundance of universities in the 1800's education becomes more accessible than ever before. A new class (upper-middle class) of educated citizens emerges.
- Civil war allows a gender and race shift that opens up equal university education to women and blacks.
- Professional groups (American Medical Association, American Bar Association) begin to spring up and self-regulate members of skilled professions.
American Education (1917-1945)
American Universities took over from European universities as being on the frontiers of knowledge. The first women's universities opened, universities begin to diversify by class and — some — by race. A university education was increasingly viewed as a necessity for everyone in society. College accreditation began, schools began to self-categorize, admission standards came into effect, and Junior Colleges began and flourished.
Student Class
The number of colleges more than doubles increasing opportunity and diversity but cost still a barrier to the majority of the population.
What do you get with a BA?
Degrees continue to focus on professional pursuits. Job types that emerge early on include: lawyers, ministers, teachers, merchants, manufacturers, politicians.
Model of University
Large university model is born with the explosion in student enrollment and on campus population.
Who were Professors?
Specialists (single-subject professors) and researchers. Only Cambridge and Oxford hold on to the tutors.
Types of Transportation
In 1903 the Wright Brothers take their first flight. In 1909 Ford rolls out the Model T changing personal transportation forever.
Significant Thinkers/Writers
Max Wertheimer's Gestalt Theory; that learning through insight and grasping the whole concept. Jean Piaget's developmental model.
Trends
- American universities overtake European universities as being on the frontiers of knowledge.
- College accreditation begins in earnest.
- Colleges begin to self-select into categories: elite, land-grant, state, etc.
- Standards (for admission, for progression) begin to come into effect.
- Junior Colleges (community colleges) begin and flourish (275 between 1900-1940).
American Education (1945-1979)
The GI Bill and the Baby Boom mean that college enrollment skyrockets. The huge influx of GI's required American universities to adapt to the needs of servicemen. The nation-wide increase in enrollment led to a shift in attitude: higher education is seen as the path to liberty, egality and happiness. This led to large-scale attempts to attend elite universities, and a 10-fold increase in the number of students enrolled at 2 year schools.
Student Class
Enrollment booms with the introduction of the G.I. Bill. Whites are still the majority but th bill enables more minorities to be college educated.
What do you get with a BA?
Having a college degree is increasingly used as a sorting method for job selection and is important, if not necessary, for almost all professional positions.
Model of University
Large university model is born with the explosion in student enrollment and on campus population.
Who were Professors?
Specialists. Tenured.
Types of Transportation
The miles of surfaced roads more than triple from 1925 to 1945. Increased driving and car ownership. Increased air travel..
Significant Thinkers/Writers
Jerome Bruner's development as a combination of enactive skills, iconic skills, symbolic skills. Herbert R. Kohl emphasizes student-centered classrooms, holistic learning. Also, Jean Piaget.
Trends
- The GI Bill and the Baby Boom lead to skyrocketing college enrollment. The national attitude shifts: higher education is seen as the path to liberty, egality, happiness.
- Due to the success of government-funded university research (to aid the USA during war-time), the idea of government-funded research at the university level takes hold.
- Due to the HUGE influx of GI's, universities streamline curriculum, adopt year-round schedules, give credit for military work and, overall, reveal themselves to be adaptable.
American Education (1980-1999)
An increased interest in a college education, coupled with the increased challenge of getting a job without a degree led to an enrollment boom at 2 year and commuter schools: more than 50% of new freshmen enrolled at those institutions. With a movement towards "new vocationalism" more students studied "practical" subjects like business, management and accounting.
Student Class
Major influx of immigrants and rapidly expanding education system combines to increase enrollment four fold and lowers barriers to access. College populations expand rapidly.
What do you get with a BA?
The Bachelors degree is necessary for almost all professional positions. It is even more important with the trend to offshore labor to cheaper locations.
Model of University
The commuter school becomes popular.Student types beginning to change broadly as increasingly “nontraditional” students enroll.
Who were Professors?
Specialists - some tenured some not
Types of Transportation
Faster and cheaper airplanes move people around the world in increasing numbers. Bigger cars and SUVs begin to dominate the road.
Significant Thinkers/Writers
John Holt adds momentum to the home-schooling movement. Jacqueline & Martin Brooks; best learning occurs through active construction of knowledge rather than its passive reception.
Trends
- Commuter and 2-year schools currently enroll more than 50% of freshmen.
- "Non-traditional students" increasingly common.
- On residential campuses, a push towards luxurious dorm rooms, co-educational housing and "theme houses".
- Rising drop-out rates.
American Education (2000-Present)
The non-traditional student has overtaken the traditional student as the norm on college campuses. With a college degree increasingly required for a middle-class career, the average student is no longer an 18 year old white male who is financially supported by his family. This shift in student demographics contributes to the booming for-profit sector and increasing enrollment in online courses.
Student Class
Access to college is near universal with the right type of funding sources. Focus on increasing enrollment and attainment for poorer students.
What do you get with a BA?
Bachelors is seen as essential for most advanced employment with enrollment continuing to skyrocket.
Model of University
A balance between research and education forms. For profit education and skills training schools boom. Elearning takes off.
Who were Professors?
Specialists with most untenured.
Types of Transportation
Hybrid cars, increasingly inexpensive air travel, and decreasing railroad travel.
Significant Thinkers/Writers
Diane Ravitch's progressive educational policies and argue for a more traditional, academically-oriented education.
Trends
- Non-traditional students overtake traditional students as the norm on college campuses.
- The for-profit sector booms.
- In many cities universities are the largest employer and largest landholder. Tax problems ensue
American Education (To 2020)
The "typical" American college student will be non-white, older than 18, and not seeking the traditional 4-years-on-campus experience. With for-profit universities revealing themselves to be flexible to student desires and needs, traditional schools will have to adapt to survive. It is expected that the most successful schools will be "brick and click" or have both a physical and online classroom componant.
Student Class
A focus on degree attainment is seen as a critical component for a competitive future for all individuals.
What do you get with a BA?
Some college will be necessary for almost all jobs that pay a living wage and are competitive.
Model of University
Schools will be a hybrid called “bricks and clicks” with universities offering both the convenience of online classes and a physical location where students can interact with others.
Who were Professors?
An increasing stratification, with the best professors drawing huge classes, salaries, clout, while most remain on a lower rung.
Types of Transportation
As megacities increase and need for urban population grows there will be reduced reliance on personal cars and increased reliance on mass transit.
Significant Thinkers/Writers
Emerging thinkers through new media, such as blogging, enable more voices to be heard and emerging thinkers to increase their impact on the post secondary discussion.
Trends
- Students' convenience is the future: Colleges must adapt to survive.
Significant Educational Thinkers and Writers
- (1690) John Locke: Essay Concerning Human Understanding
- (1734) Christian von Wolff: Faculty Psychology
- (1924) Max Wertheimer: Gestalt Theory
- (1929) Jean Piaget: The Child's Conception of the World
- (1966) Jerome Bruner: Toward a Theory of Instruction
Federal Government Acts in Support of Education
- (1819) Supreme Court Case: Trustees of Dartmouth College v. Woodward
- (1862) The First Morrill Act (the "Land Grant Act")
- (1944) The Servicemen's Readjustment Act (The G.I. Bill)
- (1965) The Higher Education Act
- (2001) The No Child Left Behind Act
Instances Where Student Activism Changed the Face of American Universities
- (1962) Full Racial Integration
- (1962) Equal Access for those with disabilities
- (1968) Bilingual public education is a legal right
- (1969) African American Studies is a legitimate course of study
- (1982) All public schools must be coeducational
Landmark Events in the Struggle for African Americans to have Equal Access to Higher Education.
- (1833) Oberlin College is founded and is the first in the nation to admit students "without respect to color."
- (1837) The Institute for Colored Youth (today Cheyney University) is founded as the first Historically Black College.
- (1890) The Second Morrill Act leads to the creation of 16 historically black land-grant colleges.
- (1922) Howard University conducts the first course in the U.S. on African Civilizations.
- (1944) The United Negro College Fund is established.
- (1968) The First Black Studies Department in the United States Is Established at San Francisco State University
- (1988) Temple University's African American Studies Department becomes the first Ph.D. granting African American Studies department in the world.
- (2004) According to the U.S. Census Bureau, 2.3 million African American students are enrolled in college
- (2020) Minority students are forecast to outnumber whites on college campuses for the first time.